http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1793/203 The Wisconsin Highway Research Program is intended to integrate the highway research efforts of the Wisconsin Department of Transportation, academia, and industry representatives to strategically improve Wisconsin’s highways and transportation system. http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1793/6915 Health Monitoring of Bridge Structures and Components Using Smart Structure Technology Volume 1 Phares, Brent Wipf, Terry Greimann, Lowell Lee, Yoon-Si Abstract The objective of this research was to synthesize information on structural health monitoring technologies with a specific interest in those having smart-structure attributes. Following a comprehensive information collection campaign and a survey of State Departments of Transportation, the identified structural health monitoring technologies (both currently in use and emerging) were carefully reviewed and summarized. This final report includes a brief summary of the history of bridge evaluation in the United States of America, current and future trends of Structural Health Monitoring, and a series of completed SHM Technology Evaluation Forms for each of the identified technologies. In addition, a searchable database has been developed and is included with the final report that allows easy identification and review of structural health monitoring technologies. This volume (Volume I) summarizes the research approach and the key findings of the work. Volume II consists of completed SHM Technology Evaluation Forms for the 101 synthesized technologies. Wed, 10 Jan 2007 14:50:26 GMT http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1793/6909 Effects of Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag in Portland Cement Concrete Cramer, Steven Sippel, Chad This research examined the impact of cement replacements with Grade 100 ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) on portland cement concrete performance. GGBFS was used to replace 0%, 30% and 50% of cement in a series of mixes with w/cm = 0.45 where primary variables were coarse aggregate type, cement manufacturer, and curing regime. The primary performance measures were compressive strength development and deicer freeze-thaw scaling resistance. The results show that the amount of time needed to reach 3000 psi traffic opening strength more than doubled from 3 days to 7 days with 30% GGBFS and to 10 days with 50% GGBFS. GGBFS concrete strength becomes comparable to ordinary portland cement concrete after 56 days. Deicer freeze-thaw scaling tended to increase with increasing GGBFS levels and appeared to be tied to the level of carbonation at the surface. Traditional curing methods were less effective with GGBFS concrete in providing a durable surface. In summary, under certain conditions Grade 100 GGBFS can be used successfully in Wisconsin pavements. The seemingly minor variations that result from different mix constituents in OPC appear to be accentuated in GGBFS concrete. A 50% GGBFS cement replacement level usually results in unsatisfactory performance from primarily a scaling perspective. A 30% GGBFS cement replacement level will often be acceptable but the outcome depends on the specific constituents and curing methods used. Wed, 10 Jan 2007 14:47:56 GMT http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1793/6907 Using the Gyratory Compactor to Measure Mechanical Stability of Asphalt Mixtures Mahmoud, Ahmed Fatin Faheem Bahia, Hussain In this study several asphalt mixtures were produced using four different aggregate sources, different asphalt contents, and different aggregate gradations. Every mixture was compacted using the SGC. To evaluate if the densification results from the SGC can be related to rutting of mixtures, the new axial compression test procedure for rutting measurements recommended by the National Cooperative Highway Research Program project 9-19 and used in the AASHTO 2002 pavement design manual, was also used for evaluating the rutting behavior for laboratory produced samples. Densification curves produced by the SGC were used to determine volumetric properties of the mix as well as for the calculation of the construction and the traffic densification indices. The construction densification index (CDI), which is the value of the area under the densification curve from density at 8 gyrations to density of 92% Gmm, represents the work done during the construction period to achieve 8 % air voids. The traffic densification index (TDI), which is the value of the area under the densification curve from 92% density to 98% density, represents the work needed to resist traffic loading during pavement service life. Two more indices are calculated, construction force index (CFI) and traffic force index (TFI). CFI is related to the amount of work done to raise the density of the mix to 92%. The TFI is the amount of work done to increase the density of the mix from 92% to 98%.The results from the mixture rutting tests were used to estimate the rutting rate and the flow number (FN), which is the point at which the mixture starts to exhibit tertiary flow. The flow number, which is considered an important mixture property, is shown to have a strong correlation to the TDI derived from the mixture volumetric behavior measured in the SGC. The main finding of the study is that SGC appears to give information that can be used to characterize the stability of the mixtures. Such information could be used as an initial screening criterion to select mixture for various traffic ESAL levels , in addition to indicating an expected performance level. Wed, 10 Jan 2007 14:47:45 GMT http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1793/6899 Effects of Heavy Loading on Wisconsin's Concrete Pavements Owusu-Ababio, Samuel Schmitt, Robert L. Wisconsin DOT District 7 filed a Report of Early Distress for a 6.5-mile stretch of USH 8 and an 8-mile stretch of USH 51 near Rhinelander in 2001. An investigation of the causes for the premature failures concluded that overloaded logging trucks were a key factor leading to the premature failure of the doweled jointed plain concrete pavements (JPCP). Consequently, a recommendation was made to develop design guidelines for heavy truck loading on concrete pavements in Wisconsin. To develop the guidelines, JPCP design guides were solicited from several agencies, specifically, agencies located in Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Climate Regions III and VI. A review of the design guides indicated that the 1993 AASHTO guide and the Portland Cement Association method are the two most popular state-of-the-art methods that attempt to address overloading, either using load safety factors or probabilistic concepts such as reliability. The two methods were further evaluated in terms of their ability to provide a transition to the AASHTO 2002 mechanistic-empirical design and allow a range of rehabilitation options for old JPCP. Based on the evaluation, the 1993 AASHTO guide was recommended for consideration in the design of JPCP in Wisconsin. The 1993 AASHTO guide was evaluated using data from one logging truck corridor along USH 8. The results indicated that a high-end reliability combined with modified rigid ESAL factors has the greatest potential to address overloading on Wisconsin’s concrete pavements. Wed, 10 Jan 2007 14:47:02 GMT http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1793/6893 Application of Electromagnetic Geophysics (EMG) Technology to Subsurface Investigations Kalinski, Michael Sripada, Ravi A study was performed to investigate current methods for using EMG technology to assess the capabilities, limitations, and costs associated with these methods, and to identify EMG consultants and equipment that may be of benefit to WisDOT for performing site investigations in Wisconsin. Based on the results of this study, six EMG methods were identified and described. Based on the information provided by 10 consultants, several consultants who may be attractive candidates for providing EMG services to WisDOT were identified. Information was also compiled on 17 pieces of EMG equipment manufactured by 7 companies. This report provides a comprehensive overview of EMG in terms of description of methods, synopsis of consultant capabilities, and a summary of available EMG equipment. Wed, 10 Jan 2007 14:46:08 GMT http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1793/6891 Assessment and Rehabilitation Strategies/Guidelines to Maximize the Service Life of Concrete Structures Adams, Teresa M. Pincheira, Jose Huang, Ying-Hua This report presents a spreadsheet tool for evaluating life-cycle maintenance strategies for existing concrete bridge decks that have deteriorated as a result of chloride-induced corrosion. The spreadsheet tool construct a performance curve for existing bridge decks, computse the estimated service life of common treatments for bridge decks such as patching, concrete or asphaltic overlays as well as that of a new deck with epoxy coated bars, conducts a life-cycle cost analysis for common maintenance scenarios, and determines the optimal maximum (tolerable) condition index that minimizes total life-cycle maintenance cost. The life-cycle cost analysis is probabilistic. Also, this report provides a library of alternative life-cycle treatment scenarios and offers distribution functions for estimated unit costs. Both agency and user costs are considered. A case study analysis was conducted using the tool. Findings and conclusions suggest that the least cost maintenance scenario may depend on the choice of discount rate. The most significant findings are that total life-cycle cost (user cost plus agency cost) is a function of the maximum tolerable condition Sm. and that the function can be optimized to find the value of Sm that minimizes the total life-cycle cost. Wed, 10 Jan 2007 14:45:50 GMT http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1793/6889 Non-Destructive Testing of Wisconsin Highway Bridges Ghorbanpoor, Al Benish, Neal The management of in-service bridges throughout the United States is an important task. An effective assessment of the condition of these bridges is an essential requirement for this task. Non-destructive evaluation can be an effective tool in the inspection and condition assessment of bridge structures. It can provide knowledge that may not be possible to deduce from visual observation alone. The integration of both visual and non-destructive inspection methods is key to complete bridge condition assessment and management. Once a full representation of the overall bridge condition is determined, appropriate and economical decisions regarding the possible rehabilitation or replacement of bridge members or the entire structure can be made. In this report, the basic inspection techniques for reinforced concrete, prestressed or post-tensioned concrete, and steel bridge structures are discussed. Guidelines relating common flaws identified during visual inspection to appropriate non-destructive testing techniques are provided in this report as they can provide an effective aid to those responsible for bridge inspection. The guidelines included in this report would help the maintenance personnel and bridge engineers to obtain a more complete visualization of bridge structure condition. Wed, 10 Jan 2007 14:45:30 GMT http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1793/6887 Integrated Field and Office Tools for Bridge Management Adams, Teresa M. Dzienkowski, James Juni, Emil Siddiqui, Mohshin WisDOT’s Bureau of Structures data consolidation project brings together all bridge-related data into a single Highway Structure Inventory System (HSIS) data warehouse including inventory, inspection and maintenance records, and maintenance cost. With the new HSIS, WisDOT’s interactive bridge inspection forms and data procedures became incompatible. The HSIS presented a timely opportunity to investigate alternative data collection tools that are practicable in the field. This research investigates the use of field data tools for bridge inspection. Bridge inspectors participated in identifying functional requirements leading to an assembly of field tools including Tablet PC with shoulder carrying case, noise-canceling headset microphone, and tethered pen. Bridge inspectors from 6 districts volunteered for training to use the handwriting and speech recognition technologies and then to test the tools for practical use in bridge inspection. This report presents the tool selection process, training, and evaluation of technology adoption and economic benefits. The report includes an evaluation of alternative technologies choices along with recommendation for full deployment. Wed, 10 Jan 2007 14:45:18 GMT http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1793/6885 Performance of Shoulders Adjacent to Concrete Pavements Owusu-Ababio, Samuel Schmitt, Robert L. The Wisconsin Department of Transportation (WisDOT) maintenance staff in both the Districts and Central Office discussed the less-than-optimum performance of the current asphalt shoulder design and standard being constructed adjacent to mainline concrete pavement projects. Problems associated with heaving of the shoulders during cold weather make snow removal operations more difficult and cause uneven wear on plow blades. Excessive cracking in both the longitudinal and transverse directions force maintenance crews to address these shoulders early in their life. In many cases, this is forcing continual maintenance crew exposure to high volume traffic roadways that are unwanted. This report presents a set of guidelines for consideration in paved shoulder practice in Wisconsin. The set of guidelines was developed through a series of tasks including: a) review and synthesis of literature on paved shoulders, b) survey of seven Midwestern states (Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Ohio, Michigan, Minnesota and Wisconsin) regarding their shoulder practices, and c) data collection and analysis of in-service paved shoulders adjacent to mainline concrete pavements in Wisconsin. On the basis of the analysis several recommendations are made regarding the design elements for two feasible shoulder alternatives to minimize the extent and/or severity of specific key distresses. The two feasible shoulder alternatives are a) Jointed plain concrete shoulder tied to the mainline concrete pavement and b) a composite shoulder (an extended PCC width beyond the white line plus a specified asphalt-surfaced width). In addition, recommendations are made regarding elements for consideration in the effective management of shoulders. Wed, 10 Jan 2007 14:45:07 GMT http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1793/6881 Estimating Soil/Pile Set-up Komurka, Van Wagner, Alan Edil, Tuncer Abstract Soil/pile set-up is time-dependent increase in pile capacity, and can contribute significantly to long-term pile capacity. If it were possible to incorporate the effects of set-up during design, it may be possible to reduce pile lengths, reduce pile sections (use smaller-diameter or thinner-wall pipe piles, or smaller-section H-piles), or reduce the size of driving equipment (use smaller hammers and/or cranes). Any one, or a combination, of these reductions should result in cost savings. Accordingly, this research investigated, through a thorough review of the literature and the state of the practice, if it is possible and practical to estimate set-up during design, using information obtained during a relative routine subsurface exploration program. A literature search was conducted; a references list is provided. Set-up is predominately associated with an increase in shaft resistance. The complete mechanisms contributing to set-up are not well understood, but the majority of set-up is likely related primarily to dissipation of excess porewater pressures within, and subsequent remolding and reconsolidation of soil, which is displaced and disturbed during pile driving. After excess porewater pressures have dissipated, aging may account for additional set-up. A number of empirical relationships have been proposed to estimate or predict set-up, and have demonstrated reasonable success in a number of studies. Empirical relationships are limited in widespread application by the relationships having been based on combined (shaft and toe) resistance determinations, inter-dependence of back-calculated or assumed variables, and the complexity of the mechanisms contributing to set-up. A number of exploration-phase field tests offering potential value in predicting set-up have been identified: SPTTorque test, SPT-Uplift test, piezocone testing, dilatometer testing, and vane shear testing. Of these, the SPTTorque test appears to offer the most-favorable combination of applicability of results, ease and simplicity of performing the test, and cost. It is recommended that SPT-Torque testing be performed on a number of sites where satisfactory set-up data is available to determine if a meaningful relationship exists between the “set-up” which develops on a split-barrel sampler, and the set-up which develops on a driven pile, in various soil strata. If a meaningful relationship is determined, SPT-Torque tests could be added to routine subsurface exploration programs to measure sampler/soil set-up in various soil strata, and predict production pile set-up. Wed, 10 Jan 2007 14:44:45 GMT http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1793/6879 Development of Guidelines for PG Binder Selection for Wisconsin Nam, Kitae Delgadillo, Rodrigo Bahia, Hussain In 1997, the Wisconsin DOT made the transition to use PG binders in place of the Penetration and Viscosity graded asphalts that had been historically used. The decision at that time to specify the PG 58-28 as the standard grade for use was based on this grade similarity to the asphalts that had been used previously, the wide availability of the material in the region, and the fact that there was little or no difference in cost. Although this binder grade has been widely used, it is well known that the climatic conditions in the state of Wisconsin vary between the north region and south region of Wisconsin. According to the Superpave binder specification (AASHTO MP1) other grades designed for colder climate need to be used. In fact, before the AASHTO MP1 was implemented, more than one penetration grade was already being used in Wisconsin. In the cold regions of Wisconsin the Pen 200-300 grade was used while in the south the grades of Pen 85-100 and 120-150 were used. Since the implementation of the Superpave binder specification in 1993 a large number of State Highway Agencies (SHAs) have found critical gaps in the PG grading system. Reviewing the published literature indicates that most of these gaps are somewhat related to the use of modified asphalts and to the fact that the existing PG grading system cannot discriminate between modification technologies, some of which are believed not be successful technologies in terms of adding value to the quality of binders. Last year (2001) the NCHRP report 459 was published, which focused on offering a revised system for testing and evaluation of asphalt binders using a more mechanistic testing system based on direct measurements of damage behavior of binders. This report is offered to address the implementation of the NCHRP 9-10 proposal and to show how it could be implemented on trial basis using the results of testing of a wide selection of asphalts currently used, or marketed, in the State of Wisconsin. The binders include unmodified and modified of several grades (PG 58-28, PG 64-22, PG 64-34, PG 70-22, PG 70- 28, and PG 76-28). The results of testing using the NCHRP9-10 protocols were used to select binders for specific climate, traffic, and pavement conditions. The existing knowledge of PG grading of the binders was used to derive specification limits that would meet specific climate and traffic conditions. No grade shifting was necessary because all testing is done at actual pavement temperatures and because a more mechanistic approach could be used to meet the traffic volume and speed requirements. The specification limits are tentative and mainly based on ranking of the PG grading system of the binders included. They serve as a starting point for future field validation and revision. This report is intended to describe the logic in deriving the limits and to offer initial specification limits to move us away from the Superpave plus and offer a logical alternative to compliment the existing PG grading system. Wed, 10 Jan 2007 14:44:32 GMT http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1793/6877 Effects of Aggregate Coatings and Films on Concrete Performance Gullerud, Karl J. Cramer, Steven Coarse aggregates containing surface coatings were collected throughout Wisconsin and characterized to determine composition. Based on the results of these tests, a subset of the sample aggregates was selected to further study the effects of the coatings on concrete performance. It was hypothesized that coatings consisting of clay material are more deleterious than coatings consisting of either dust or carbonate material. The 10-batch concrete mixing plan tested coarse aggregates from three different sources and in the following three conditions: (1) coated aggregates that were sampled in the field, (2) aggregates washed in the laboratory, and (3) aggregates with added coatings. The effect of each aggregate coating on concrete performance was assessed from changes in compressive strength, tensile strength, drying shrinkage, freeze-thaw durability, and chloride ion penetrability as influenced by washed versus coated aggregates. In general terms, this research suggested that the effects of aggregate coatings as sampled in Wisconsin are minor, but could not rule out the possible existence of problem aggregates not included in the small sample. The test results confirmed that coatings with a high clay contents are more deleterious to concrete strength and durability than coatings that consist largely of dust or carbonate material. While the carbonate coatings appeared to slightly improve performance, the clay coatings appeared to significantly decrease strength and durability. Although current field washing procedures do not need to be changed, it was recommended that the WisDOT consider adoption of the California test 227. Wed, 10 Jan 2007 14:44:20 GMT http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1793/6869 Rehabilitation Techniques for Concrete Bridges Tabatabai, Habib Ghorbanpoor, Al Turnquist-Nass, Amy This research project addresses rehabilitation techniques for reinforced and prestressed concrete bridges, focusing primarily on corrosion of prestressed concrete beam-ends. An extensive literature database on repair of concrete bridges was developed using Microsoft Access. A limited, first version of an expert system computer program, Concrete Bridge Assessment and Rehabilitation (ConBAR), was developed to assist in diagnosis of concrete bridge deterioration problems and to identify repair, rehabilitation, or preventative maintenance options. The effectiveness of several repair methods in mitigating corrosion damage and providing protection to prestressed concrete beam-ends was evaluated experimentally. These methods included silane sealers, epoxy coatings, patching, polymer (resin) coatings and fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) wraps. Wed, 10 Jan 2007 14:43:11 GMT http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1793/6865 Determination of Influences on Support Strength of Crushed Aggregate Base Course Due to Gradational, Regional, and Source Variations Eggen, Paul Brittnacher, Don This research investigates the range of load-carrying capability, in terms of resilient modulus (MR), of crushed aggregate base course in Wisconsin and how variables, such as physical characteristics, material type, source lithilogy and regional factors influence MR. Testing was conducted on 37 aggregate sources and the results statistically analyzed to look for correlations between MR and these variables and to determine if they could be used to predict MR. Results showed that MR did not differ between and/gravel pit and quarry groups and that carbonate quarries generally gave significantly higher MR values than Precambrian, felsic-plutonic quarries. Changing gradation of base course from a given source affected MR test results, but not consistently or predictably. Certain physical parameters, were found that influence MR in some of the geologic subsets. However, none of the correlations were strong enough to predict MR with sufficient confidence. The test data will provide a base of information that will be useful when WisDOT adopts a mechanistic-empirical pavement design process. Wed, 10 Jan 2007 14:42:16 GMT http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1793/6863 Structural Analysis of Sign Bridge Structures and Luminaire Supports Foley, Christopher Ginal, Scott Peronto, John Fournelle, Raymond The Wisconsin Department of Transportation has experienced failures of a high-mast luminaire (HML) support structure and a full-span overhead sign support structure. Furthermore, cracking has been found in many sign support structures composed of welded round hollow structural shapes (HSS). The purpose of the research conducted was to provide fatigue life estimates for these structures, which could then shed light onto the causes of the cracking found and the failures experienced. The analytical and experimental effort conducted was also used to establish rational inspection intervals for these structures and recommend changes (as required) to the procedures for design of high-mast luminaire and full-span sign support structures targeted to improve in-service performance. Wed, 10 Jan 2007 14:41:55 GMT